Online Learning

NEW WEBLOG FOR EASY ACCESS!

2008-07-08T13:03:00.000-07:00

My dear colleagues and students, starting from next semester I, considering the constructive 'voices' from you, redirect all materials to my 'fresh' three weblog.

Please visit www.english1e.blogspot.com for 1e english materials, www.english2e.blogspot.com for 2e, and www.english3e.blogspot.com for 3e students.

Visit www.english123go.wordpress.com for my personal comments on some hot issues.

Developing a Paragraph

2008-07-03T08:52:00.000-07:00

*Three parts of a paragraph:*

* *

*Topic sentence:* Use this formula for building a good topic sentence: a
specific topic + a specific feeling or attitude.

* *

*Body of paragraph:* Contains sentences that develop or explain the idea
given in the topic sentence. Generally 3-5 sentences are necessary per
paragraph.

* *

*Closing/Clincher sentence:* Reminds the reader what the main idea of
the paragraph is and what it means (why it is important). Closing
sentences can also be a transition to the next paragraph.

*
Paragraph Unity:*

Limit paragraphs to one main idea that is presented in the topic
sentence and eliminate all sentences that do not support that idea.

*
Strategies for developing a paragraph:*

Develop the body of the paragraph

n with reasons

n by giving examples

n by using a story/incident to illustrate the idea

n by using statistics

n with descriptive details

*
Ordering the details in a paragraph:*

*Use the following methods of organization:*

* *

*Chronological order:* time order, as things happen

* *

*Order of location:* in reference to where things are located

* *

*Order of importance:* go from most to least important or from least to
most important

* *

*Cause and Effect:* Start with cause of a problem; continue with
possible effects

* *

*Comparison:* Explain a subject by showing how it is like another subject

* *

*Contrast:* Explain a subject by showing how it is different from
another subject

*
Don't Even Think About It!:*

n Don't use "I" or first person in paragraphs other than personal
narratives: use third person point of view (he, she, it etc.)

n "This paragraph will explain," or "This paragraph will be about"
beginnings are bad. Instead, write a clear topic sentence that
eliminates these unnecessary words and focuses on the subject and
purpose. For example, instead of "This paragraph is about the space
program and all the innovations that have helped society" write
"Innovations from the space program have helped advance society."

n Straying from the main idea: check each sentence to make sure it
belongs in your paragraph. If it doesn't, take it out.

n Wordiness: take out all unnecessary words.

n Unclear pronoun references: never start a sentence with the words
"this" or "that" etc. Your reader may not know what you mean.

n Insufficient transitions
<http://www.sheboyganfalls.k12.wi.us/staff/dehogue/FSSH/trans.htm>: you
need to link ideas to one another.

50 Interview Questions - IMPORTANT!

2008-06-04T17:32:00.000-07:00

*1. Tell me about yourself:*
The most often asked question in interviews. You need to have a short
statement prepared in your mind. Be careful that it does not sound
rehearsed. Limit it to work-related items unless instructed otherwise.
Talk about things you have done and jobs you have held that relate to
the position you are interviewing for. Start with the item farthest
back and work up to the present.

*2. Why did you leave your last job?
*Stay positive regardless of the circumstances. Never refer to a major
problem with management and never speak ill of supervisors, co-workers
or the organization. If you do, you will be the one looking bad. Keep
smiling and talk about leaving for a positive reason such as an
opportunity, a chance to do something special or other forward-looking
reasons.

*3. What experience do you have in this field?*
Speak about specifics that relate to the position you are applying for.
If you do not have specific experience, get as close as you can.

*4. Do you consider yourself successful?*
You should always answer yes and briefly explain why. A good
explanation is that you have set goals, and you have met some and are
on track to achieve the others.

*5. What do co-workers say about you?
*Be prepared with a quote or two from co-workers. Either a specific
statement or a paraphrase will work. Jill Clark, a co-worker at Smith
Company, always said I was the hardest workers she had ever known. It
is as powerful as Jill having said it at the interview herself.

*6. What do you know about this organization?
*This question is one reason to do some research on the organization
before the interview. Find out where they have been and where they are
going. What are the current issues and who are the major players?

*7. What have you done to improve your knowledge in the last year?*
Try to include improvement activities that relate to the job. A wide
variety of activities can be mentioned as positive self-improvement.
Have some good ones handy to mention.

*8. Are you applying for other jobs?*
Be honest but do not spend a lot of time in this area. Keep the focus
on this job and what you can do for this organization. Anything else is
a distraction.

*9. Why do you want to work for this organization?*
This may take some thought and certainly, should be based on the
research you have done on the organization. Sincerity is extremely
important here and will easily be sensed. Relate it to your long-term
career goals.

*10. Do you know anyone who works for us?*
Be aware of the policy on relatives working for the organization. This
can affect your answer even though they asked about friends not
relatives. Be careful to mention a friend only if they are well thought
of.

*11. What kind of salary do you need?*
A loaded question. A nasty little game that you will probably lose if
you answer first. So, do not answer it. Instead, say something like,
That's a tough question. Can you tell me the range for this position?
In most cases, the interviewer, taken off guard, will tell you. If not,
say that it can depend on the details of the job. Then give a wide
range.

*12. Are you a team player?
*You are, of course, a team player. Be sure to have examples ready.
Specifics that show you often perform for the good of the team rather
than for yourself are good evidence of your team attitude. Do not brag,
just say it in a matter-of-fact tone. This is a key point.

*13. How long would you expect to work for us if hired?*
Specifics here are not good. Something like this should work: I'd like
it to be a long time. Or As long as we both feel I'm doing a good job.

*14. Have you ever had to fire anyone? How did you feel about that?
*This is serious. Do not make light of it or in any way seem like you
like to fire people. At the same time, you will do it when it is the
right thing to do. When it comes to the organization versus the
individual who has created a harmful situation, you will protect the
organization. Remember firing is not the same as layoff or reduction in
force.

*15. What is your philosophy towards work?*
The interviewer is not looking for a long or flowery dissertation here.
Do you have strong feelings that the job gets done? Yes. That's the
type of answer that works best here. Short and positive, showing a
benefit to the organization.

*16. If you had enough money to retire right now, would you?
*Answer yes if you would. But since you need to work, this is the type
of work you prefer. Do not say yes if you do not mean it.

*17. Have you ever been asked to leave a position?
*If you have not, say no. If you have, be honest, brief and avoid saying
negative things about the people or organization involved.

*18. Explain how you would be an asset to this organization*
You should be anxious for this question. It gives you a chance to
highlight your best points as they relate to the position being
discussed. Give a little advance thought to this relationship.

*19. Why should we hire you?
*Point out how your assets meet what the organization needs. Do not
mention any other candidates to make a comparison.

*20. Tell me about a suggestion you have made
*Have a good one ready. Be sure and use a suggestion that was accepted
and was then considered successful. One related to the type of work
applied for is a real plus.

*21. What irritates you about co-workers?
*This is a trap question. Think real hard but fail to come up with
anything that irritates you. A short statement that you seem to get
along with folks is great.

*22. What is your greatest strength?*
Numerous answers are good, just stay positive. A few good examples:
Your ability to prioritize, Your problem-solving skills, Your ability
to work under pressure, Your ability to focus on projects, Your
professional expertise, Your leadership skills, Your positive attitude

*23. Tell me about your dream job.*
Stay away from a specific job. You cannot win. If you say the job you
are contending for is it, you strain credibility. If you say another
job is it, you plant the suspicion that you will be dissatisfied with
this position if hired. The best is to stay genetic and say something
like: A job where I love the work, like the people, can contribute and
can't wait to get to work.

*24. Why do you think you would do well at this job?
*Give several reasons and include skills, experience and interest.

*25. What are you looking for in a job?
*See answer # 23

*26. What kind of person would you refuse to work with?
*Do not be trivial. It would take disloyalty to the organization,
violence or lawbreaking to get you to object. Minor objections will
label you as a whiner.

*27. What is more important to you: the money or the work?*
Money is always important, but the work is the most important. There is
no better answer.

*28. What would your previous supervisor say your strongest point is?*
There are numerous good possibilities:
Loyalty, Energy, Positive attitude, Leadership, Team player, Expertise,
Initiative, Patience, Hard work, Creativity, Problem solver

*29. Tell me about a problem you had with a supervisor*
Biggest trap of all. This is a test to see if you will speak ill of
your boss. If you fall for it and tell about a problem with a former
boss, you may well below the interview right there. Stay positive and
develop a poor memory about any trouble with a supervisor.

*30. What has disappointed you about a job?*
Don't get trivial or negative. Safe areas are few but can include:
Not enough of a challenge. You were laid off in a reduction Company did
not win a contract, which would have given you more responsibility.

*31. Tell me about your ability to work under pressure.*
You may say that you thrive under certain types of pressure. Give an
example that relates to the type of position applied for.

*32. Do your skills match this job or another job more closely?*
Probably this one. Do not give fuel to the suspicion that you may want
another job more than this one.

*33. What motivates you to do your best on the job?*
This is a personal trait that only you can say, but good examples are:
Challenge, Achievement, Recognition

*34. Are you willing to work overtime? Nights? Weekends?*
This is up to you. Be totally honest.

*35. How would you know you were successful on this job?*
Several ways are good measures:
You set high standards for yourself and meet them. Your outcomes are a
success.Your boss tell you that you are successful

*36. Would you be willing to relocate if required?
*You should be clear on this with your family prior to the interview if
you think there is a chance it may come up. Do not say yes just to get
the job if the real answer is no. This can create a lot of problems
later on in your career. Be honest at this point and save yourself
future grief.

*37. Are you willing to put the interests of the organization ahead
ofyour own?
*This is a straight loyalty and dedication question. Do not worry about
the deep ethical and philosophical implications. Just say yes.

*38. Describe your management style.
*Try to avoid labels. Some of the more common labels, like progressive,
salesman or consensus, can have several meanings or descriptions
depending on which management expert you listen to. The situational
style is safe, because it says you will manage according to the
situation, instead of one size fits all.

*39. What have you learned from mistakes on the job?
*Here you have to come up with something or you strain credibility. Make
it small, well intentioned mistake with a positive lesson learned. An
example would be working too far ahead of colleagues on a project and
thus throwing coordination off.

*40. Do you have any blind spots?
*Trick question. If you know about blind spots, they are no longer blind
spots. Do not reveal any personal areas of concern here. Let them do
their own discovery on your bad points. Do not hand it to them.

*41. If you were hiring a person for this job, what would you look for?
*Be careful to mention traits that are needed and that you have.

*42. Do you think you are overqualified for this position?
*Regardless of your qualifications, state that you are very well
qualified for the position.

*43. How do you propose to compensate for your lack of experience?
*First, if you have experience that the interviewer does not know about,
bring that up: Then, point out (if true) that you are a hard working
quick learner.

*44. What qualities do you look for in a boss?*
Be generic and positive. Safe qualities are knowledgeable, a sense of
humor, fair, loyal to subordinates and holder of high standards. All
bosses think they have these traits.

*45. Tell me about a time when you helped resolve a dispute betweenothers.
*Pick a specific incident. Concentrate on your problem solving technique
and not the dispute you settled.

*46. What position do you prefer on a team working on a project?
*Be honest. If you are comfortable in different roles, point that out.

*47. Describe your work ethic.
*Emphasize benefits to the organization. Things like, determination to
get the job done and work hard but enjoy your work are good.

*48. What has been your biggest professional disappointment?
*Be sure that you refer to something that was beyond your control. Show
acceptance and no negative feelings.

*49. Tell me about the most fun you have had on the job.*
Talk about having fun by accomplishing something for the organization.

*50. Do you have any questions for me?
*Always have some questions prepared. Questions prepared where you will
be an asset to the organization are good. How soon will I be able to be
productive? and What type of projects will I be able to assist on? are
examples.

Tutorial and Assignment for 2EA

2008-04-10T08:27:00.000-07:00

Pay attention to the way the structures change, from active to passive.

Mary helps John

John is helped by Mary

Mary is helping John

John is being helped by Mary

Mary has helped John

John has been helped by Mary

Mary helped John

John was helped by Mary

Mary was helping John

John was being helped by Mary

Mary had helped John

John had been helped by Mary

Mary will help John

John will be helped by Mary

Mary is going to help John

John is going to be helped by Mary

Mary will have helped John

John will have been helped by Mary

Now, do this assignment... change from active to passive

1. Shakespeare wrote that play.
2. Bill will invite Ann to the party.
3. Alex is preparing the report.
4. Waitresses and waiters serve customers.
5. The teacher is going to explain the lesson.
6. Shirley has suggested a new idea.
7. Two horses were pulling the farmer's wagon.
8. Kathy had returned the book to the library.
9. By this time tomorrow, the president will have made the announcement.
10. I didn't write that note. Jim wrote it.
11. Alice didn't make that pie. Did Mrs. French make it?
12. Does Prof. Jackson teach that course? I know that Prof. Adams doesn't teach it.
13. Mrs. Andrews hasn't signed those papers yet. Has Mr. Andrews signed them yet?
14. Is Mr. Brown painting your house?
15. His trick won't fool me.

Change these sentences, from active to passive, if possible. If not, write 'no change' after the sentences.

1. A strange thing happened yesterday. <-- No change.
2. Jackie scored the winning goal.
3. My cat died.
4. I agree with Dr. Ikeda's Theory.
5. Dr. Ikeda developed that Theory.
6. Tomy dropped the cup.
7. The cup fell to the floor.
8. The assistant manager interviewed me.
9. It rained hard yesterday.
10. A hurricane destroyed the small fishing village.
11. Dinosaurs existed millions of years ago.
12. A large vase stands in the corner of our front hallway.
13. The children seemed happy when they went to the zoo.
14. After class, one of the students always erases the chalkboard.
15. The solution to my problem appeared to me in my dream.

Presentation

2008-04-09T09:47:00.000-07:00

Introduction

Presentations and reports are ways of communicating ideas and information to a group. But unlike a report, a presentation carries the speaker's personality better and allows immediate interaction between all the participants. A good presentation has:

Content - It contains information that people need. But unlike reports, which are read at the reader's own pace, presentations must account for how much information the audience can absorb in one sitting.
Structure - It has a logical beginning, middle, and end. It must be sequenced and paced so that the audience can understand it. Where as reports have appendices and footnotes to guide the reader, the speaker must be careful not to loose the audience when wandering from the main point of the presentation.
Packaging - It must be well prepared. A report can be reread and portions skipped over, but with a presentation, the audience is at the mercy of a presenter.
Human Element - A good presentation will be remembered much more than a good report because it has a person attached to it. But you still need to analyze if the audience's needs would not be better met if a report was sent instead.

The Voice

The voice is probably the most valuable tool of the presenter. It carries most of the content that the audience takes away. One of the oddities of speech is that we can easily tell others what is wrong with their voice, e.g. too fast, too high, too soft, etc., but we have trouble listening to and changing our own voices.

There are four main terms used for defining vocal qualities:

Volume: How loud the sound is. The goal is to be heard without shouting. Good speakers lower their voice to draw the audience in, and raise it to make a point.
Tone: The characteristics of a sound. An airplane has a different sound than leaves being rustled by the wind. A voice that carries fear can frighten the audience, while a voice that carries laughter can get the audience to smile.
Pitch: How high or low a note is. Pee Wee Herman has a high voice, Barbara Walters has a moderate voice, while James Earl Jones has a low voice.
Pace: This is how long a sound lasts. Talking too fast causes the words and syllables to be short, while talking slowly lengthens them. Varying the pace helps to maintain the audience's interest.
Color: Both projection and tone variance can be practiced by taking the line "This new policy is going to be exciting" and saying it first with surprise, then with irony, then with grief, and finally with anger. The key is to over-act. Remember Shakespeare's words "All the world's a stage" -- presentations are the opening night on Broadway!

There are two good methods for improving your voice:

1. Listen to it! Practice listening to your voice while at home, driving, walking, etc. Then when you are at work or with company, monitor your voice to see if you are using it how you want to.

2. To really listen to your voice, cup your right hand around your right ear and gently pull the ear forward. Next, cup your left hand around your mouth and direct the sound straight into your ear. This helps you to really hear your voice as others hear it...and it might be completely different from the voice you thought it was! Now practice moderating your voice.

The Body

Your body communicates different impressions to the audience. People not only listen to you, they also watch you. Slouching tells them you are indifferent or you do not care...even though you might care a great deal! On the other hand, displaying good posture tells your audience that you know what you are doing and you care deeply about it. Also, a good posture helps you to speak more clearly and effective.

Throughout you presentation, display:

Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It signals interest in others and increases the speaker's credibility. Speakers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.
Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm, and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and others will react favorably. They will be more comfortable around you and will want to listen to you more.
Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring and stiff. A lively speaking style captures attention, makes the material more interesting, and facilitates understanding.
Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and leaning forward communicates that you are approachable, receptive, and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and your audience face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates disinterest.
Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with others. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading other's space. Some of these are: rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze aversion. Typically, in large rooms, space invasion is not a problem. In most instances there is too much distance. To counteract this, move around the room to increase interaction with your audience. Increasing the proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for others to speak.
Voice. One of the major criticisms of speakers is that they speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of speaker as boring and dull. People report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to those who have not learned to modulate their voices.

Active Listening

Good speakers not only inform their audience, they also listen to them. By listening, you know if they are understanding the information and if the information is important to them. Active listening is NOT the same as hearing! Hearing is the first part and consists of the perception of sound.

Listening, the second part, involves an attachment of meaning to the aural symbols that are perceived. Passive listening occurs when the receiver has little motivation to listen carefully. Active listening with a purpose is used to gain information, to determine how another person feels, and to understand others. Some good traits of effective listeners are:

Spend more time listening than talking (but of course, as a presenter, you will be doing most of the talking).
Do not finish the sentence of others.
Do not answer questions with questions.
Aware of biases. We all have them. We need to control them.
Never daydream or become preoccupied with their own thoughts when others talk.
Let the other speaker talk. Do not dominate the conversation.
Plan responses after others have finished speaking...NOT while they are speaking. Their full concentration is on what others are saying, not on what they are going to respond with.
Provide feedback but do not interrupt incessantly.
Analyze by looking at all the relevant factors and asking open-ended questions. Walk the person through analysis (summarize).
Keep the conversation on what the speaker says...NOT on what interest them.

Listening can be one of our most powerful communication tools! Be sure to use it!

Part of the listening process is getting feedback by changing and altering the message so the intention of the original communicator is understood by the second communicator. This is done by paraphrasing the words of the sender and restating the sender's feelings or ideas in your own words, rather than repeating their words. Your words should be saying, "This is what I understand your feelings to be, am I correct?" It not only includes verbal responses, but also nonverbal ones. Nodding your head or squeezing their hand to show agreement, dipping your eyebrows to show you don't quite understand the meaning of their last phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing out hard shows that you are also exasperated with the situation.

Carl Roger listed five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations (notice that we make judgments more often than we try to understand):

Evaluative: Makes a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the other person's statement.
Interpretive: Paraphrasing - attempt to explain what the other persons statement mean.
Supportive: Attempt to assist or bolster the other communicator
Probing: Attempt to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point.
Understanding: Attempt to discover completely what the other communicator means by her statements.

Nerves

The main enemy of a presenter is tension, which ruins the voice, posture, and spontaneity. The voice becomes higher as the throat tenses. Shoulders tighten up and limits flexibility while the legs start to shake and causes unsteadiness. The presentation becomes "canned" as the speaker locks in on the notes and starts to read directly from them.

First, do not fight nerves, welcome them! Then you can get on with the presentation instead of focusing in on being nervous. Actors recognize the value of nerves...they add to the value of the performance. This is because adrenaline starts to kick in. It's a left over from our ancestors' "fight or flight" syndrome. If you welcome nerves, then the presentation becomes a challenge and you become better. If you let your nerves take over, then you go into the flight mode by withdrawing from the audience. Again, welcome your nerves, recognize them, let them help you gain that needed edge! Do not go into the flight mode! When you feel tension or anxiety, remember that everyone gets them, but the winners use them to their advantage, while the losers get overwhelmed by them.

Tension can be reduced by performing some relaxation exercises. Listed below are a couple to get you started:

Before the presentation: Lie on the floor. Your back should be flat on the floor. Pull your feet towards you so that your knees are up in the air. Relax. Close your eyes. Fell your back spreading out and supporting your weight. Feel your neck lengthening. Work your way through your body, relaxing one section at a time - your toes, feet, legs, torso, etc. When finished, stand up slowly and try to maintain the relaxed feeling in a standing position.
If you cannot lie down: Stand with you feet about 6 inches apart, arms hanging by your sides, and fingers unclenched. Gently shake each part of your body, starting with your hands, then arms, shoulders, torso, and legs. Concentrate on shaking out the tension. Then slowly rotate your shoulders forwards and the backwards. Move on to your head. Rotate it slowly clockwise, and then counter-clockwise.
Mental Visualization: Before the presentation, visualize the room, audience, and you giving the presentation. Mentally go over what you are going to do from the moment you start to the end of the presentation.
During the presentation: Take a moment to yourself by getting a drink of water, take a deep breath, concentrate on relaxing the most tense part of your body, and then return to the presentation saying to your self, "I can do it!"
You do NOT need to get rid of anxiety and tension! Channel the energy into concentration and expressiveness.
Know that anxiety and tension is not as noticeable to the audience as it is to you.
Know that even the best presenters make mistakes. The key is to continue on after the mistake. If you pick up and continue, so will the audience. Winners continue! Losers stop!
Never drink alcohol to reduce tension! It affects not only your coordination but also your awareness of coordination. You might not realize it, but your audience will!

Questions

Keep cool if a questioner disagrees with you. You are a professional! No matter how hard you try, not everyone in the world will agree with you!

Although some people get a perverse pleasure from putting others on the spot, and some try to look good in front of the boss, most people ask questions from a genuine interest. Questions do not mean you did not explain the topic good enough, but that their interest is deeper than the average audience.

Always allow time at the end of the presentation for questions. After inviting questions, do not rush ahead if no one asks a question. Pause for about 6 seconds to allow the audience to gather their thoughts. When a question is asked, repeat the question to ensure that everyone heard it (and that you heard it correctly). When answering, direct your remarks to the entire audience. That way, you keep everyone focused, not just the questioner. To reinforce your presentation, try to relate the question back to the main points.

Make sure you listen to the question being asked. If you do not understand it, ask them to clarify. Pause to think about the question as the answer you give may be correct, but ignore the main issue. If you do not know the answer, be honest, do not waffle. Tell them you will get back to them...and make sure you do!

Answers that last 10 to 40 seconds work best. If they are too short, they seem abrupt; while longer answers appear too elaborate. Also, be sure to keep on track. Do not let off-the-wall questions sidetrack you into areas that are not relevant to the presentation.

If someone takes issue with something you said, try to find a way to agree with part of their argument. For example, "Yes, I understand your position..." or "I'm glad you raised that point, but..." The idea is to praise their point and agree with them. Audiences sometimes tend to think of "us verses you." You do not want to risk alienating them.

Preparing the Presentation

After a concert, a fan rushed up to famed violinist Fritz Kreisler and gushed, "I'd give up my whole life to play as beautifully as you do." Kreisler replied, "I did."

To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail.

Great presentations require some preplanning. First, read Meetings for an outline of preparing and conducting a meeting, such as acquiring a room, informing participants, etc. A presentation follows the same basic guidelines as preparing for a meeting.

The second step is to prepare the presentation. A good presentation starts out with introductions and an icebreaker such as a story, interesting statement or fact, joke, quotation, or an activity to get the group warmed up. The introduction also needs an objective, that is, the purpose or goal of the presentation. This not only tells you what you will talk about, but it also informs the audience of the purpose of the presentation.

Next, comes the body of the presentation. Do NOT write it out word for word. All you want is an outline. By jotting down the main points on a set of index cards, you not only have your outline, but also a memory jogger for the actual presentation. To prepare the presentation, ask yourself the following:

What is the purpose of the presentation?
Who will be attending?
What does the audience already know about the subject?
What is the audience's attitude towards me (e.g. hostile, friendly)?

A 45 minutes talk should have no more than about seven main points. This may not seem like very many, but if you are to leave the audience with a clear picture of what you have said, you cannot expect them to remember much more than that. There are several options for structuring the presentation:

Timeline: Arranged in sequential order.
Climax: The main points are delivered in order of increasing importance.
Problem/Solution: A problem is presented, a solution is suggested, and benefits are then given.
Classification: The important items are the major points.
Simple to complex: Ideas are listed from the simplest to the most complex. Can also be done in reverse order.

You want to include some visual information that will help the audience understand your presentation. Develop charts, graphs, slides, handouts, etc.

After the body, comes the closing. This is where you ask for questions, provide a wrap-up (summary), and thank the participants for attending.

Notice that you told them what they are about to hear (the objective), told them (the body), and told them what they heard (the wrap up).

And finally, the important part - practice, practice, practice. The main purpose of creating an outline is to develop a coherent plan of what you want to talk about. You should know your presentation so well, that during the actual presentation, you should only have to briefly glance at your notes to ensure you are staying on track. This will also help you with your nerves by giving you the confidence that you can do it. Your practice session should include a "live" session by practicing in front of coworkers, family, or friends. They can be valuable at providing feedback and it gives you a chance to practice controlling your nerves. Another great feedback technique is to make a video or audio tape of your presentation and review it critically with a colleague.

Habits

We all have a few habits, and some are more annoying than others. For example, if we say "uh," "you know," or put our hands in our pockets and jingle our keys too often during a presentation, it distracts from the message we are trying to get across.

The best way to break one of these distracting habits is with immediate feedback. This can be done with a small group of coworkers, family, or friends. Take turns giving small off-the-cuff talks about your favorite hobby, work project, first work assignment, etc. The talk should last about five minutes. During a speaker's first talk, the audience should listen and watch for annoying habits.

After the presentation, the audience should agree on the worst two or three habits that take the most away from the presentation. After agreement, each audience member should write these habits on a 8 1/2" x 11" sheet of paper (such as the word "Uh"). Use a magic marker and write in BIG letters.

The next time the person gives her or his talk, each audience member should wave the corresponding sign in the air whenever they hear or see the annoying habit. For most people, this method will break a habit by practicing at least once a day for one to two weeks.

Tips and Techniques For Great Presentations

Eleanor Roosevelt was a shy young girl who was terrified at the thought of speaking in public. But with each passing year, she grew in confidence and self-esteem. She once said, "No one can make you feel inferior, unless you agree with it."

If you have handouts, do not read straight from them. The audience does not know if they should read along with you or listen to you read.
Do not put both hands in your pockets for long periods of time. This tends to make you look unprofessional. It is OK to put one hand in a pocket but ensure there is no loose change or keys to jingle around. This will distract the listeners.
Do not wave a pointer around in the air like a wild knight branding a sword to slay a dragon. Use the pointer for what it is intended and then put it down, otherwise the audience will become fixated upon your "sword", instead upon you.
Do not lean on the podium for long periods. The audience will begin to wonder when you are going to fall over.
Speak to the audience...NOT to the visual aids, such as flip charts or overheads. Also, do not stand between the visual aid and the audience.
Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear. Do not speak in a monotone voice. Use inflection to emphasize your main points.
The disadvantages of presentations is that people cannot see the punctuation and this can lead to misunderstandings. An effective way of overcoming this problem is to pause at the time when there would normally be punctuation marks.
Use colored backgrounds on overhead transparencies and slides (such as yellow) as the bright white light can be harsh on the eyes. This will quickly cause your audience to tire. If all of your transparencies or slides have clear backgrounds, then tape one blank yellow one on the overhead face. For slides, use a rubber band to hold a piece of colored cellophane over the projector lens.
Learn the name of each participant as quickly as possible. Based upon the atmosphere you want to create, call them by their first names or by using Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.
Tell them what name and title you prefer to be called.
Listen intently to comments and opinions. By using a lateral thinking technique (adding to ideas rather than dismissing them), the audience will feel that their ideas, comments, and opinions are worthwhile.
Circulate around the room as you speak. This movement creates a physical closeness to the audience.
List and discuss your objectives at the beginning of the presentation. Let the audience know how your presentation fits in with their goals. Discuss some of the fears and apprehensions that both you and the audience might have. Tell them what they should expect of you and how you will contribute to their goals.
Vary your techniques (lecture, discussion, debate, films, slides, reading, etc.)
Get to the presentation before your audience arrives; be the last one to leave.
Be prepared to use an alternate approach if the one you've chosen seems to bog down. You should be confident enough with your own material so that the audience's interests and concerns, not the presentation outline, determines the format. Use your background, experience, and knowledge to interrelate your subject matter.
When writing on flip charts use no more than 7 lines of text per page and no more than 7 word per line (the 7 7 rule). Also, use bright and bold colors, and pictures as well as text.
Consider the time of day and how long you have got for your talk. Time of day can affect the audience. After lunch is known as the graveyard section in training circles as audiences will feel more like a nap than listening to a talk.
Most people find that if they practice in their head, the actual talk will take about 25 per cent longer. Using a flip chart or other visual aids also adds to the time. Remember - it is better to finish slightly early than to overrun.

How to make a good presentation

2008-04-08T08:14:00.000-07:00

· Do use PowerPoint if the facilities are available. Although some speakers seem to have taken an aversion to PowerPoint, it is so convenient and ensures that your presentation has a clear structure and something for your listeners to take away.

Be very clear about how much time you have - and stick to that time in preparing your presentation. It's very difficult to 'cut' a PowerPoint presentation at the event itself, so it's a great mistake to run out of time. Most presenters prepare too much material; but nobody ever complains that a presentation was too short (it always allows more time for questions).
Be very clear about your key message - and ensure that everything in your presentation is both consistent with, and suppportive of, that key message. You should be able to articulate the message in a phrase or a sentence and indeed you might want to use that phrase or sentence in one of your first slides, or one of your last, or even both.
E-mail your presentation to the event organisers in advance. Ask them to load it onto a laptop, run it through, check that it looks fine, and confirm that with you. Then you don't have to worry about the technology when you arrive at the venue; you can concentrate on the delivery of your material. Also it enables the event's organisers to run off copies of your slides, so that they are available to them in good time.
The first slide should announce the title of your presentation (try to make it catchy), the event and date, and your name and position. This may seem terribly obvious, but many speakers miss off some of this basic information and then weeks later listeners (or their colleagues back at the organisation) are not clear who made the presentation or when.
The second slide should seize the attention of your audience for your presentation. It could be the central proposition of your presentation or a conventional wisdom that you wish to challenge or a relevant or witty quote from a leader in your field. If it is amusing or controversial or both, so much the better.
The third slide should set out the structure of your presentation. The default structure should consist of three themes that you intend to examine. For a very short presentation, there might only be time for two; if you want to look at more than five areas, write a book instead.
Each theme should be the subject of a small number of slides. Again, a good working assumption is that three slides for each theme is about right. Less than two and it isn't substantive enough to be a separate theme; more than five and it should probably be broken up into two themes.
Each slide should have clear heading. A question is often a good way of winning attention - but, in that case, make sure you answer the question in the body of the slide.
Each slide should normally contain around 25-35 words, unless it is a quote (when you might use more) or contains an illustration (when you will probably use less). Too many words and your audience will have trouble reading the material; too few words and you're likely to be flashing through the slides and spending too much time clicking the mouse.
Each bullet point should consist of an intelligible phrase, rather than merely a word or two that is meaningless on its own or conversely a complete sentence that is better delivered orally. So, for instance, do use "Focus on profitable and growing markets" rather than simply "Focus" or "Markets" or "It is necessary to focus on those markets which are profitable and growing rather than those which are loss-making and declining". Consider this test: your slides should make sense and be useful to someone who was not present at your presentation.
Make appropriate use of pictures. It's a good idea to break up text with illustrations and it is true that a picture is worth a thousand words.
The last slide should set out all appropriate contact details: certainly e-mail address and possibly snail mail address, the web site of your organisation, and any personal website or weblog if you have one.
Make copies of your slides available. It is a matter of preference whether you do this at the beginning of your presentation or at the end. If your listeners have copies at the beginning, they can take notes simply by annotating the slides, instead of having to note down all the information on the slides. On the other hand, you might feel that, if they can see in advance the slides you are going to use, you lose the element of control or surprise. It might depend on the content of the presentation: if you are going to show detailed tables or graphs with lots of figures, your audience will probably find it easier to have a copy on their lap. It might depend on the circumstances of the presentation: if there is a large audience, people at the back may not be able to see the screen clearly and would really appreciate having copies of the slides.

(from: http://www.rogerdarlington.co.uk/Presentation.html)

Presentation Advice

2008-04-07T15:04:00.000-07:00

Things to Think About

Oral Communication is different from written communication

Listeners have one chance to hear your talk and can't "re-read" when they get confused. In many situations, they have or will hear several talks on the same day. Being clear is particularly important if the audience can't ask questions during the talk. There are two well-know ways to communicate your points effectively. The first is to K.I.S.S. (keep it simple stupid). Focus on getting one to three key points across. Think about how much you remember from a talk last week. Second, repeat key insights: tell them what you're going to tell them (Forecast), tell them, and tell them what you told them (Summary).

Think about your audience

Most audiences should be addressed in layers: some are experts in your sub-area, some are experts in the general area, and others know little or nothing. Who is most important to you? Can you still leave others with something? For example, pitch the body to experts, but make the forecast and summary accessible to all.

Think about your rhetorical goals

For conference talks, for example, I recommend two rhetorical goals: leave your audience with a clear picture of the gist of your contribution, and make them want to read your paper. Your presentation should not replace your paper, but rather whet the audience appetite for it. Thus, it is commonly useful to allude to information in the paper that can't be covered adequately in the presentation. Below I consider goals for academic interview talks and class presentations.

Practice in public

It is hard distilling work down to 20 or 30 minutes.

Prepare

See David Patterson's How to Give a Bad Talk

A Generic Conference Talk Outline

This conference talk outline is a starting point, not a rigid template. Most good speakers average two minutes per slide (not counting title and outline slides), and thus use about a dozen slides for a twenty minute presentation.

Title/author/affiliation (1 slide)
Forecast (1 slide)
Give gist of problem attacked and insight found (What is the one idea you want people to leave with? This is the "abstract" of an oral presentation.)
Outline (1 slide)
Give talk structure. Some speakers prefer to put this at the bottom of their title slide. (Audiences like predictability.)
Background

Motivation and Problem Statement (1-2 slides)
(Why should anyone care? Most researchers overestimate how much the audience knows about the problem they are attacking.)
Related Work (0-1 slides)
Cover superficially or omit; refer people to your paper.
Methods (1 slide)
Cover quickly in short talks; refer people to your paper.

Results (4-6 slides)
Present key results and key insights. This is main body of the talk. Its internal structure varies greatly as a function of the researcher's contribution. (Do not superficially cover all results; cover key result well. Do not just present numbers; interpret them to give insights. Do not put up large tables of numbers.)
Summary (1 slide)
Future Work (0-1 slides)
Optionally give problems this research opens up.
Backup Slides (0-3 slides)
Optionally have a few slides ready (not counted in your talk total) to answer expected questions. (Likely question areas: ideas glossed over, shortcomings of methods or results, and future work.)

(from: http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~markhill/conference-talk.html)

Presentation Advice

2008-04-07T14:57:00.000-07:00

Things to Think About

Oral Communication is different from written communication

Think about your audience

Think about your rhetorical goals

Practice in public

It is hard distilling work down to 20 or 30 minutes.

Prepare

See David Patterson's How to Give a Bad Talk

A Generic Conference Talk Outline

Title/author/affiliation (1 slide)
Forecast (1 slide)
Give gist of problem attacked and insight found (What is the one idea you want people to leave with? This is the "abstract" of an oral presentation.)
Outline (1 slide)
Give talk structure. Some speakers prefer to put this at the bottom of their title slide. (Audiences like predictability.)
Background

Motivation and Problem Statement (1-2 slides)
(Why should anyone care? Most researchers overestimate how much the audience knows about the problem they are attacking.)
Related Work (0-1 slides)
Cover superficially or omit; refer people to your paper.
Methods (1 slide)
Cover quickly in short talks; refer people to your paper.

Results (4-6 slides)
Present key results and key insights. This is main body of the talk. Its internal structure varies greatly as a function of the researcher's contribution. (Do not superficially cover all results; cover key result well. Do not just present numbers; interpret them to give insights. Do not put up large tables of numbers.)
Summary (1 slide)
Future Work (0-1 slides)
Optionally give problems this research opens up.
Backup Slides (0-3 slides)
Optionally have a few slides ready (not counted in your talk total) to answer expected questions. (Likely question areas: ideas glossed over, shortcomings of methods or results, and future work.)

(from: http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~markhill/conference-talk.html)

Assignment for 3EA and 3EB - Writing #1

2008-03-27T23:58:00.001-07:00

Make a short narration, retelling your experience during apprenticeship.

Due date: next meeting (March 27, 2008)

Assignment for 1E (EA and EB) #1

2008-03-27T23:16:00.001-07:00

Write these figures in words.

1. 1,053

2. 2,279

3. 10,874

4. 12.00

5. 100.302

6. 6/7

7. 12/3

8. 1/8

9. 2/6

10. 0.5 + 20 =

11. 50 – 2.8 =

Write these words in figures

1. Eight point seven

2. One point one

3. Ninety nine point nine

4. Twelve point three

5. Nine over four

6. Ten sixth

7. Eleven over three

8. A hundred

9. One third

10. Two fourth

Determiner - English Material for 1EA and EB (Session #1)

2008-03-18T17:37:00.000-07:00

‘Determiner’ is a general term for words which are used before nouns to show which person or thing is being referred to. Determiners of quantity are used to describe how much or little of something there is.

all many enough a few no

every much few neither

each most several

both a little

little

The following determiners must only be used with countable nouns in the plural:

We don’t get many tourists here. We get several letters a week.

Hold on with both hands. I take fewer trips abroad these days.

We’ve invited a few friends to dinner. So few people attended.

Note: Few has a negative meaning, and means ‘almost no’. A few has a positive

meaning and means ‘some’.

The following determiners must only be used with uncountable nouns:

Will it take much time? I had less money than I thought.

Add a little salt. We get so little light in this room.

Note: Little has a negative meaning, and means ‘almost no’. A little has a positive

meaning and means ‘some’.

The following determiners can be used with countable nouns in the plural and with

uncountable nouns:

Kim’s got more bags than me. Kim’s got more luggage than me.

Most items of jewellery are made Most gold is used to make jewellery.

from gold.

All children should receive education. All meat is rich in protein.

Do you have enough clothes? We don’t have enough furniture.

He left no instructions. There’s no ice in the fridge.

The following determiners must be used with singular countable nouns:

He checked each document carefully. Every child needs affection.

If you follow one determiner with another determiner (such as the or this) you

usually put of between them.

Take some bread. Take some of the bread.

Every and no cannot be used with of. Every one of or none of is used instead.

Every tree is marked with a cross Every one of the young trees is

marked with a cross.

We have no accurate information. None of this information is

accurate.

English Material for 1EA and 1EB (Session #1)

2008-03-16T19:57:00.000-07:00

Mathematical English

This is the summary of our first meeting. Please refer to your English module for more complete materials.

A comma (,) is used to indicate thousands.
Nought occurs chiefly as the name of the numeral, and is replaced, in general, by the negative determiner no or the pronoun none.
Zero is used for 0, especially in mathematics and for temperature.
One or a must be used with 100,000 and 1,000,000 when they are written in letters or spoken.

#1 - Prinsip Dasar Kalimat

2008-02-18T20:49:00.000-08:00

Hi all! Pada tutorial kali ini saya akan membahas tentang the basic principle of a sentence, prinsip dasar sebuah kalimat. Untuk memulai bahasan ini sekaligus untuk memberi gambaran yang jelas, saya akan memberikan dua contoh. Perhatikan contoh-contoh berikut.

Contoh 1. The red bicycle in front of the house

Contoh 2. I go.

Contoh yang pertama terdiri atas enam kata, sedangkan contoh yang kedua terdiri atas dua kata. Pertanyaan saya, which one is a sentence? Contoh mana yang merupakan sebuah kalimat? Kalau anda memilih contoh yang pertama dengan alasan bahwa contoh tersebut mempunyai jumlah kata yang lebih banyak, well, anda salah. Sebaliknya, contoh ke-dua adalah sebuah kalimat meskipun hanya terdiri dari dua kata. Apa yang membuat contoh tersebut dapat dikategorikan sebagai sebuah kalimat?

A sentence must have at least a subject and a verb! Anda perhatikan dan ingat prinsip pertama ini. Sebuah kalimat haruslah mempunyai setidaknya satu subjek dan satu kata kerja. Meskipun susunan kata berikut: The red bicycle in front of the house, terdiri atas enam kata, tetapi tidak ada kata yang merepresentasikan subjek dan juga predikat. Sebaliknya, perhatikan struktur kalimat pada contoh yang ke-dua.

I go

S P/V

Syarat minimal sebuah kalimat dipenuhi pada contoh di atas. I adalah sebuah subjek kalimat, dan go adalah sebuah predikat atau kata kerja.

From this point, apa yang membuat prinsip ini sangat penting ketika anda mengerjakan soal TOEFL atau TOEIC? It’s simply because all TOEFL or TOEIC questions are sentences! Semua soal dalam TOEFL atau TOEIC adalah kalimat-kalimat. Tidak akan anda temukan soal yang secara struktur tidak memenuhi prinsip dasar ini. REMEMBER! A sentence must have at least a subject and a verb!

JOIN www.ayo-belajar.com! Ikuti kursus online di www.ayo-belajar.com

New look!

2008-02-18T03:05:00.000-08:00

Hari ini, 18/2/2008, saya mengubah tampilan dari www.english-frog.blogspot.com. Mudah-mudahan tampilan baru ini bisa memberi semangat buat semuanya, both mahasiswa-mahasiswa yang mengakses mata kuliah maupun saya sendiri. ENJOY THE NEW LOOK!

Is Professional Development Individualistic?

2007-11-22T19:53:00.000-08:00

Is Professional Development Individualistic?
Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory and Teacher Professional Development

Ardian W Setiawan, M.Ed

Abstract
Whilst the significance of teacher professional development is palpable, the concept is still paradoxical in the sense that it possesses two dimensions, individual and social. This article focuses on teachers as professionals. It seeks to discuss some literature related to the issue of professional identity and argue that teachers’ professional development is more social in nature than individual. Employing Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory as a theoretical framework, it also suggests how teachers should construct their professional identity.
The issue of teacher professional development is always critical because it has fundamental implications for the way teachers transform knowledge in the classroom. Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, and Johnson (2005) suggest that classrooms are very complex places. They maintain that ‘in order to understand language teaching and learning we need to understand teachers’ (p.22). It is also challenging as there are questions regarding the quality of teaching practices and teachers as the agents of pragmatism.
Although this article is an attempt to understand the complexity of teachers’ professional identity, it does not try to view the concept from a simplistic approach. The multiplicity and hybridity of identity are always taken into account.

Identity
Teachers’ identity and professional development have been intriguing and ‘always hot’ topics in ELT. Many researchers have coined their ideas concerning the issues, such as Cochran-Smith and Fries (2001) who propose that paradigms for professional development position teachers as mere implementers of predetermined strategies, and Goodson (1992) who suggests that teachers are commonly reduced to ‘objects which can be manipulated for particular ends’ (p.188).
Norton (1997) maintains that any discussion related to the concept of identity is intriguing because debates on its theories are ‘inconclusive and indeterminate’ (p.409). According to her, the questions related to identity need to be addressed critically although some linguists assume that those questions are unnecessary to the theory of language. Observing the current debates about identity, she sums up three critical points. First, most researchers, authors, and theorists who discuss identity see the concept as complex, contradictory, and multifaceted. They reject any simplistic notion related to identity. Second, they essentially agree that identity is dynamic across time and space. Third, they share a similar view that identity constructs and is constructed by language.
In spite of the essentialist views which tend to look at identity in terms of its homogeneity, Hall (1997) maintains that identities are multiple and constructed. The concept of identity involves a question of ‘becoming’ (Hall, 1996, p.4). From Hall’s perspective, identity should be explored in terms of its dynamic nature and multiplicity.
Norton (1997) mentions two dimensions of identity, cultural identity which ‘refers to the relationship between individuals and members of a group who share a common history, a common language, and a similar ways of understanding the world’ (p.420) and social identity which ‘refers to the relationship between the individual and the larger social world, as mediated through institutions such as families, schools, workplaces, social services, and law courts’ (p.420). These two dimensions, she asserts, are interdependent rather than contradictory.
According to Hall (1990), cultural identity might be understood in two ways. The first defines cultural identity in terms of one shared culture, whereas the second defines cultural identity as a matter of ‘becoming’ as well as of ‘being’ (p.225). Hall denies the essentialist view of identity by arguing that identity is a temporary achievement. By this, he asserts, identity remains incomplete and constructed over time.
While cultural identity focuses on cultural dimensions, social identity might be approached by understanding that identity has multiple aspects. McNamara (1997) argues that various social facets of our ‘selves’, such as race, occupation, gender, and class, contribute to our understanding of who we are. According to him, identity largely depends on social contexts.

Professional Identity of English Teachers
This article draws on Norton’s definition of identity to help construct an appropriate definition of professional identity. Norton (1997) suggests that identity refers to ‘how people understand their relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how people understand their possibility in the future’ (p.410). According to West (in Norton, 1997), identity relates to the desire for recognition, affiliation, and safety. In addition, West asserts that the question ‘who am I?’ cannot be separated from the question ‘what can I do?’. This implies that someone’s identity will change in accordance with social relations.
It is also useful to employ Tajfel’s and McNamara’s definitions of social identity. Tajfel (1978) suggests that social identity is constructed through group membership of a social group or groups. McNamara (1997) mentions some social facets which contribute to the formation of one’s social identity. Taking the perspectives of the above researchers as underlying basis, professional identity in this article is understood as the way people understand their social relationship in their profession, and the way they perceive themselves and are recognized by others within the community of their profession.
Since the questions of ‘who am I’ cannot be understood apart from the question of ‘what can I do?’ (West, in Norton, 1997), professional identity also cannot be separated from what a professional in a particular field should be able to do. In the field of English language teaching, the professional identity of English teachers is closely related to their ability to teach effectively. Thus, professional identity of English teachers can be roughly defined as the way English teachers recognize themselves in their profession, the way they see themselves as professionals and the way they are perceived by other professionals in English language teaching. These aspects are closely related to their pedagogic expertise.

Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory
Norton (1997) asserts that identity is not only self-constructed, but it is also shaped by external factors. From this perspective, social identity theory becomes relevant as it focuses on how social values attached to a group contribute to the ‘self-definition’ of individuals who are the members (Tajfel, 1978, p.61).
Social identity theory as a framework proposed by Tajfel ‘presents the development, maintenance, and transformation of social identity in terms of social psychological processes’ (McNamara, 1997, p.561). Hogg and Abrams (1990) maintain that the perspective of this theory holds that identity is socially constructed through social comparisons.
Tajfel’s social identity theory proposes four processes related to social identity in a context. The processes are: ‘social categorization, social identity, social comparison, and psychological group distinctiveness‘(Tajfel, 1978, p.61). Social categorization, Tajfel suggests, ‘can be understood as the ordering of social environment in terms of grouping of persons in a manner which makes sense to the individual’ (p.61). According to Tajfel, categorization is often connected to value differentials. Emphasizing its importance, he asserts that
this interaction between socially derived value differentials on the one hand and the cognitive “mechanics” of categorization on the other is particularly important in all social divisions between “us” and “them” – that is, in all social categorizations in which distinctions are made between the individual’s own group and the outgroups which are compared or contrasted with it (p.62).
While social categorization is defined as ‘a system of orientation which helps to create and define the individual’s place in society’ (Tajfel, 1978, p.63), social identity refers to ‘that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership’ (p.63).
Tajfel (1978) acknowledges that an individual’s image or concept of himself or herself is ‘infinitely more complex, both in its contents and its derivations’. Regarding this issue, he maintains that ‘however rich and complex may be an individual’s view of himself or herself in relation to the surrounding world, social and physical, some aspects of that view are contributed by the membership of certain social groups or categories’ (p.63).
The comparative perspective in the process of social comparison relates social categorizing with social identity (Tajfel, 1978). McNamara (1997) suggests that this process is related to ‘the awareness of the relative status of the social identities of both the in-group and the out-group; individuals are seen to attempt to maximize a sense of their positive psychological distinctiveness by establishing terms for the comparison that will favour in-group membership’ (p.563). Tajfel asserts that social comparison processes have a very wide range of application. One of the fundamental applications is as a social reality test. He contends that
The only “reality” tests that matter with regard to group characteristics are tests of social reality. The characteristics of one’s group as a whole (such as its status, its richness or poverty, its skin colour or its ability to reach its aims) achieve most of their significance in relation to perceived differences from other groups and the value connotation of these differences (p.66).
Tajfel (1978) maintains that the values given to the perceived differences lead to psychological group distinctiveness. The social values, he argues, might be positive or negative. He asserts that ‘a social group can fulfill its function of protecting the social identity of its members only if it manages to keep its positively valued distinctiveness from other groups’ (p.67). Sherman, Hamilton, and Lewis (in Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, & Johnson, 2005) contend that ‘identification with a negative valued group, for even a short while, will have a negative impact on one’s level of self-esteem’ (p.25).
Duff and Uchida (1997) suggest that, as in any other aspects of social life, in education identities and beliefs are co-constructed. Thus, the construction of identity requires not only the perception of oneself but also the perception of others in the society. In this sense, the construction process of identity is social. McNamara (1997) maintains that inevitably, one cannot choose in the end how one is viewed, and painful awareness of negative evaluations of one’s social identity by the out-group may lead one to adopt protective strategies; attempting to “pass” by, for example, remaining “in the closet,” removing the obvious cues to category membership by changing one’s name, modifying one’s accent, and so on (p.563).
Giles and Johnson (in Hansen & Liu, 1997), focusing on language as a marker of membership and social identity, hypothesize that ‘individuals compare their own social group to out-groups in order to make their own favorably distinct and that positive distinctiveness enables individuals to achieve a positive social identity’ (p.562). However, Giles and Johnson also recognize that the comparison might probably be negative. This, they assert, may contribute to the construction of a negative social identity. In relation to this, Hansen and Liu (1997) suggest that ‘if language is a salient marker of group membership, the individual may face linguistic adaptations that may result in subtractive bilingualism or even language erosion if a large number of members of a particular group assimilate into another to achieve a more positive group identity’ (p.562).
According to McNamara (1997), the social identity theory is not without controversy since it has been a subject of critique by some authors. Nonetheless, ‘to the extent that these critiques are part of a general poststructuralist reevaluation of mainstream traditions in the social sciences, the discussions of these authors are unexceptionable’ (McNamara, 1997, p.564). Moreover, McNamara maintains that the critiques often miss the point. ‘Williams is right to attack the notion of ethnolinguistic vitality, whose theoretical weakness has been recognized by sociologists and social psychologists alike since its appearance. But this is not Tajfel’s theory’ (p.564). McNamara suggests that Tajfel’s theory of social identity deals with this point.
The concept of social identity is explicitly formulated to theoretically incorporate individual cognitive processes as well as societal dynamics in its explanation of stereotyping...The...actions and beliefs of different groups, and the stereotypes they hold of themselves and others is rooted in the dynamics of intergroup relations which form the basis of history...They are shaped...by broader social representations, or ideologies (Tajfel, in McNamara, 1997, p.565).
Concerning the use of social identity theory as a framework, McNamara (1997) argues that despite the critiques from poststructuralist perspectives in social psychology and other social sciences, Tajfel’s theory of social identity ‘remains potentially relevant to current concerns’ (p.566).

How English Teachers Should Construct Their Professional Identity?
It can be suggested that:

1. Because identity is hybrid, dynamic, multifaceted and always contested, the construction of professional identity must be progressive. It must be a continuous process since it is the process of striving which defines teacher’s professionalism.

2. Individual development might be just ‘alright’ but ‘collaborative’ development will be more contributing to teacher’s professional identity. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2001) suggest that the development should be based on variations on critical, dialogic, inquiry-based paradigm. In such paradigm, teachers-learners are knowledge builders and generators. Teachers should create ‘collective discourse’ not ‘individualistic discourse’. Teacher professional development should be fundamentally ‘social’ both in conception and in practice.

REFERENCES

Cochran-Smith, M., and Fries, M. (2001). Sticks, stones and ideology: The discourse of reform in teacher education. Educational Reseacher, 30(8), 3-15.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (2001). Beyond certainty: Taking an inquiry stance on practice. In A. Liebermann & L. Miller (Eds.), Teachers caught in the action: Professional development that matters (pp.45-58). New York: Teachers’ College Press.
Duff, P. A., & Uchida, Y. (1997). The negotiation of teachers’ sociocultural identities and practices in postsecondary EFL classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 451-486.
Goodson, I. (1992). Studying teachers’ lives: An emergent field of inquiry. In I. Goodson (Ed), Studying teachers’ lives (pp.1-17). London: Routledge.
Hall, S. (1990). Cultural identity and diaspora. In J., Rutherford (Ed.), Identity: Community, culture, difference (pp.222-237). London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Hall, S. (1997). Introduction. In Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (pp.1-11). London: Sage Publication.
Hansen, J.G., & Liu, J. (1997). Social identity and language: Theoretical and methodical issues. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 567-576.
Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1990). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. New York: Routledge.
McNamara, T. (1997). Theorizing social identity: What do we mean by social identity? Competing frameworks, competing discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 561-567.
Norton, B. (1997). Language, identity, and the ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 409-429.
Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnston, B., & Johnson, K. A. (2005). Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspective and beyond. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(1), 21-44.

All about TOEIC

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What Is TOEIC?
The Test of English for International Communication™ (TOEIC®) is an English language test designed specifically to measure the everyday English skills of people working in an international environment.

Who Takes It And Why?
Nonnative English speakers take the test to demonstrate English proficiency when applying for new positions and obtaining credentials.

Where Do People Take It?
The test is given at open public sessions, and at companies and language schools around the world.

Who Accepts It?
The test is widely accepted by corporations, English-language programs, and government agencies around the world. Corporations use TOEIC test to document progress in English training programs, recruit and promote employees, and put standard measurements in place across locations. English Programs use it to place students at the right learning levels, and show student progress and program effectiveness. Government agencies use it to document progress in English language courses, and to recruit, promote and hire employees.

Testing Format
The TOEIC test is a paper-and-pencil, multiple-choice assessment that uses audiocassettes, pictures, and written materials to evaluate English-language skills.

Test Content
The TOEIC test is a paper-and-pencil, multiple-choice assessment. There are two separately timed sections of 100 questions each.

Section I: Listening
Examinees listen to a variety of questions and short conversations recorded in English, then answer questions based on what they heard.
Part 1: Photographs (20 items)
Part 2: Question - Response (30 items)
Part 3: Short Conversations (30 items)
Part 4: Short Talks (20 items)

Section II: Reading
Examinees read a variety of materials and respond at their own pace to questions based on the content.
Part 5: Incomplete Sentences (40 items)
Part 6: Error Recognition (20 items)
Part 7: Reading Comprehension (40 items)

Test Length
The test lasts approximately 2 ½ hours. Examinees have:
45 minutes for Section I
75 minutes for Section II, and
the remaining time to respond to biographical questions and a brief questionnaire about education and work history.

D3 TKJ Curriculum

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Passive and Active Sentences

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Pay attention to the way the structures change, from active to passive.

Mary helps John
John is helped by Mary

Mary is helping John
John is being helped by Mary

Mary has helped John
John has been helped by Mary

Mary helped John
John was helped by Mary

Mary was helping John
John was being helped by Mary

Mary had helped John
John had been helped by Mary

Mary will help John
John will be helped by Mary

Mary is going to help John
John is going to be helped by Mary

Mary will have helped John
John will have been helped by Mary

Now, do this assignment... change from active to passive

1. Shakespeare wrote that play.
2. Bill will invite Ann to the party.
3. Alex is preparing the report.
4. Waitresses and waiters serve customers.
5. The teacher is going to explain the lesson.
6. Shirley has suggested a new idea.
7. Two horses were pulling the farmer's wagon.
8. Kathy had returned the book to the library.
9. By this time tomorrow, the president will have made the announcement.
10. I didn't write that note. Jim wrote it.
11. Alice didn't make that pie. Did Mrs. French make it?
12. Does Prof. Jackson teach that course? I know that Prof. Adams doesn't teach it.
13. Mrs. Andrews hasn't signed those papers yet. Has Mr. Andrews signed them yet?
14. Is Mr. Brown painting your house?
15. His trick won't fool me.

Change these sentences, from active to passive, if possible. If not, write 'no change' after the sentences.

1. A strange thing happened yesterday. <-- No change.
2. Jackie scored the winning goal.
3. My cat died.
4. I agree with Dr. Ikeda's Theory.
5. Dr. Ikeda developed that Theory.
6. Tomy dropped the cup.
7. The cup fell to the floor.
8. The assistant manager interviewed me.
9. It rained hard yesterday.
10. A hurricane destroyed the small fishing village.
11. Dinosaurs existed millions of years ago.
12. A large vase stands in the corner of our front hallway.
13. The children seemed happy when they went to the zoo.
14. After class, one of the students always erases the chalkboard.
15. The solution to my problem appeared to me in my dream.